Restriction
of Freedom of Expression,
History of Christianity in Japan
Japanese
authority has been trying to unite the country throughout the history.
Especially from Azuchi Momoyama period (1568-1600) to Edo period (1600-1868) and
from Edo period to the end of World War II, Japanese authority suppressed anti
imperial ideas and activities, and Christian thoughts. The censorship
particularly during the Edo period was fundamentally focused on 4 categories:
Christianity including related writing, critical writing related to the ruler
Ieyasu Tokugawa and his family, criticism of the ideology of Japanese authority
which was Neo Confucianism and explicit sexual materials.
In
this paper, I will discuss the censorship of expression and publication related
to Christianity including the history of the publication censorship before Meiji
period. Since missionaries also brought the new printing technology as they
introduced Christianity in Japan, I will also discuss the history of publishing
in Japan and how an induction of new printing technology helped the development
of Japanese publishing technology.
Francis
Xavier introduced Christianity into Japan in 1549.
He was a founding member of the Society for Jesus which was
known as Jesuits in Spain. To spread Christianity, he left Europe for
India and Malacca in 1541. In 1547
in Malacca, Francis
Xavier met
a Japanese man named Anjiro who was 36 years at that time. Anjiro fled his
country after killing a man and boarded a Portuguese ship en route to India
where he encountered Francis
Xavier who changed his whole life (Francis
and Nakajima, 8). Anjiro gave Francis
Xavier
an interest to go to Japan and on
August 15 in 1549, Francis Xavier and Anjiro, newly baptized interpreter, and
other two companions of Jesuit arrived at Kagoshima, Japan (Francis and
Nakajima, 9). Historically, they are the fist missionaries that arrived Japan.
As
the missionary movement started to be active, Buddhist
priests started to be afraid that people were going to change their beliefs and
though that it could cause to ruin their monasteries. Therefore, Buddhist
priests announced to people not to listen to the foreigners and circulated
various rumors about the foreigners such as that they ate human bodies. In
addition, to increase suspicions, Buddhist priests threw blood stained rags
around the missionaries’ residents. As the rumor spread widely, people started
to believe what Buddhist priests said. With Buddhist priests’ effort, Japanese
authority issued the edict stating that anyone who future become a Christian is
under penalty of death (Cary,37). However,
some Daimyo, the local feudal lords initially
welcomed the missionaries as the representative of Portugal (Cary,39). Their
main purposes were not so much to contribute the Christianity missionaries , but
to establish the good relationship with Portugal regarding trade and
military aid.
Despite
Francis
Xavier’s hard work, ultimately,
Francis
Xavier could not have permission from the Emperor
officially to spread Christianity in Japan. Therefore, the first attempt of the
missionary in Japan was unsuccessful. However,
after they left, the population of Christian people slowly increased. According
to an annual report to the church in Portugal reported that, in 1581,
approximately 30 years after Francis
Xavier’s departure, there were 150000 Christians and 200 churches in Japan. At
that time, the total population of Japan was about 16 millions (Francis and
Nakajima, 8). Although there was the edict to prohibit becoming a Christian,
apparently it did not stop people from becoming a Christian and its number was
increased over the time.
In
1571, the first Portuguese merchant ship arrived to trade at Nagasaki in Japan
and soon, Japanese authority started to trade with Portugal, Spain and Holland.
At that time, Nobunaga Oda was the ruler of Japan and he thought that having a
good relationship with foreign countries could be a beneficial for him as the
ruler. While Nobunaga encouraged
expanding trades with European countries, he also welcomed the missionary
and
supported its activities (Cary, 77). Examining the history of ruler of Japan, it
was very unusual to have a ruler like Nobunaga who was not religious
or had no strong boned with Buddhist priests. He also had no respect for neither
Buddhism nor priests and did not hesitate to tear down a monastery demolishing
idols(Cary, 78). Nobunaga favored missionaries and as a result, during his life,
Christianity developed rapidly in Japan until 1587(Cary, 79). After Francis
Xavier arrival approximately 40 years, the missionary activity was tolerated,
and by 1587, there were more than 200,000 Japanese Catholics all over the Japan
(Francis and Nakajima, 9). From this number, we can see how successfully
Christianity was spread among Japanese people.
In 1587, the ruler changed from Nobunaga to Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Unlike
other passed rules of Japan, Hideyoshi was not from the emperor family, but a
peasant family who was a gifted military and a political leader.
At first, Hideyoshi supported missionaries; however, as he suddenly came
to suspect that the missionary efforts might prepare the way for Spanish and
Portuguese conquest of Japan, he changed his mind and issued an edict expelling
all Christian missionaries. Some Japanese historians state that Hideyoshi was
opposed to Christianity and had been waiting for a good opportunity to declare
his enmity (Cary, 103). Another explanation from Roman
Catholic historian is that there were several causes that united to arouse the
enmity of Hideyosh:
“The
fist was the evil conduct of the European
merchants,
most of whom gave themselves
up
to such debauchery as made the Japanese
despise
a religion that had to little good effect on
the
lives of its adherents. Thus, Hideyoshi
was led to think that the missionaries could not
believe
that the religion thy taught was a help
to
virtue. He one day dropped the
remark that
he
greatly feared that upright conduct
of the
missionaries
themselves was nothing more than
a
mask of hypocrisy used to conceal
the plans of the
Europeans
to gain possessions of Japan”(Cary, 104).
On
July 25 in 1587, Hideyoshi issued the first edict relating Christianity and it
stated that:
“Having
learned form our faithful counselors that
foreign
religious teachers have come into our estates,
where
they preach a low contrary to that of Japan,
and
that they have even had the audacity to destroy
temples
dedicated to our Kami and Hotoke; although
this
outrage merits that most extreme punishment,
wishing
nevertheless to show them mercy, we
order
that
under pain of death they quit Japan
with in
twenty
days. During that space of time no harm
nor
hurt will be done them, but that
the expiration
they
shall be seized and punished as the greatest
criminals
As there to continue their
accustomed
trade,
and to remain in our bring any
foreign
religious
teachers into the country,
under the
penalty
of the confiscation of their ships
and goods”
(Cary,
106).
This edict was not strictly enforced until the end of December 1596, when the first group of
martyrs was arrested in Osaka and Kyoto, Japan. They were sent to the prison and forced to
walk from Kyoto to Nagasaki that was known as the four weeks death march. In 1598, 137
churches, the colleges owned by missionaries, the seminary and Jesuits’ residences were
destroyed by Japanese authority. In addition, in some places, Christians were persecuted and
some missionaries were deported to their own countries (Asoya, 67). Japanese authority tried
hard to abolish Christianity using cruel ways and many people suffered from it because of their
beliefs.
Regardless
of this edict, Christian missionaries were carried out and increased the
believers and those people who
maintained their beliefs during this time
of the persecution were known as Kakure
Kirishitan, the Hidden
Christians. The majority of Hidden Christians resided in Nagasaki prefecture
that lies at the northwest of the main southern island of Kyushu and practiced
in underground church (Asoya, 116). The reason of this was that Nagasaki was the
trading port dealing with foreign countries and it was also
where the first missionary,
Francis Xavier arrived.
Therefore, the majority of Christian people was living in Nagasaki. Their life
styles was described as follow:
“They
are looking for us everywhere. Each house,
each
storage room, even under the floor, they are
looking
for us. We hide our bred, sake and a
book
in deep ground so that they cannot
find
who we really are. ” (Sukeno, 140).
There
are many notes illustrating how hard those Hidden Christians tried to
maintain
their beliefs without doubting
their beliefs.
In
1598, Hideyoshi passed away. By then, it is estimated that more than 400,000
Christians were persecuted. The
hostile persecution continued and it is estimated that by 1651, approximately
4,000 Catholics had been executed, many of them after prolonged and hideous
torture. Among 221 of them have
been beatified or canonized (Cary,43). Having said that, I found that it is hard
to articulate those numbers because depending on what kind of source I used,
there were different numbers regarding this statistics.
After the Hideyoshi death, Ieyasu
Tokugawa became the new ruler of Japan. Until the restoration of the Emperor in
1868, Tokugawa family maintained a role as a ruler. Throughout the history of
Tokugawa family, they successfully
established and maintained the political and the social stability. When the
Ieyasu was the ruler, he created the hierarchy of four
social classes: samurai (warrior), peasant, artisan and merchant. All
aspects of life such as what she/he could eat and wear was regulated depending
on which social classes he/she belonged to (Thelle, 4). In addition, religious
life was also regulated.
“Confucianism,
primarily the Neo Confucian Chi
His
Philosophy, with its static view of social life
and
its emphasis on loyalty and filial
piety, provided
the
official philosophy and contributed to the stability
of
intellectual life. Buddhism,
although protected
as
a quasi national religion, was also strictly
controlled
in order to serve the political
aims of the
regime
(Thelle,5).
prevent
the circulations of subversive ideas or criticism of the Tokugawa
political
system(Mitchell, 3). Under the Tokugawa family’s ruler, throughout
the
history, there were many edicts regarding the restriction of
actions
depending
on own social status.
Edicts
that were issued by Hideyoshi was still used and it was still crime to criticize
or desecrate the Tukugawa family and Japanese authority. In addition, anyone who
imports, writes or publishes the criticism of the official ideology,
Neo-Confucianism was arrested or sentenced to death. Ieyasu was very interested
in the stability and security of Japan and fashioned an isolated society
(Kodansha, 251). Due to the restriction of information flow and freedom, only
few people were actually educated or had a chance to received the education.
On
January 27 in 1613, Ieyasu issued the edict, which against Christianity and
Christianity was officially banned. It stated that:
“But
Christians have come to Japan, not only
sending their merchant
vessels to exchange
commodities, but also
longing to disseminate an
evil law and to overthrow right doctrine so
that
they may
change the government of the country
and obtain possession of the
land. This is the germ
of great disaster and must be
crushed” (Cary,177).
After
speaking of the crimes condemned by Buddhism, the edict continuously states
that:
“The
faction of the missionaries rebel against this
dispensation;
they disbelieve in the way of the gods,
blaspheme
the true law, violate right doing, and
injure
the good. If they se a condemned fellow, they
run
to him with joy, bow down to him, and do him
reverence.
This, they say, is the essence of their
enemies
of the gods and of Buddha. If this be
not
speedily prohibited, the safety of the sate will
assuredly
be hereafter imperiled; and if
those who
are
charged with ordering its affairs do not put
a
stop to the evil, they will expose themselves
to Heaven’s rebuke. These
must be instantly swept
out,
so that not an inch of soil remains to them in
Japan
on which to plant their feet, and if they refuse to
obey
this command, they shall pay the
penalty”
(Cary,
177).
The
persecution and the martyrdom by crucifixion, decapitation, and burning at the
stake increased throughout Japan after Ieyasu’s death, under his son, Hidetada
and his grandson, Iemitu (Francis
and Nakajima, 10). Because of their
strong determination of social and political stability, and an official
ideology, nothing could prevent the
cruel persecutions.
In
1623, Hidetada, Ieyasu’s son, became the ruler of Japan and republished the
edict against Christianity. The persecution of Christians
continuously
carried out and on December 4 in
1623, 50 people including 2 priests were executed and Hidetada ordered that all
Christians who could be found should be put to death and 27 people were
executed. Among 13 of them were not Christians, but because they had received
believers into their houses or they were neighbors of Hidden Christians, they
were held responsible.
It has been told that around this time, more than 300 people had been captured
and 400 to 500 people died in martyrdom including women and children (Cary,
208).
In
1624, new edicts were issued and they prohibited entry to all Spaniards, and
commanded Spanish priests to leave. It also stated that no Japanese Christian
was allowed to go abroad. All foreign ships were ordered to register everyone on
board. If anyone who brought missionaries and Christianity related documents
such as the bible to Japan, were burned at the stake
(Francis and Nakajima, 12). By
this time, many Christian books were published in Latin and Japanese language. A
great number of European books and Christianity related books were translated
and published in Japan (Cary,148).
The censorship of printing material started with the 1630 of the prohibition of books on
Christianity. In 1630, the importation and the distribution of 34 Christian books published in
Chinese were prohibited. Any books, which contained the word such as “God” “Jesus”, or “
the
West” was banned. A book sensor was taken place at the Nagasaki Kaisho that
was the
monopolistic association of Nagasaki merchants controlled all foreign trade at that time. Anyone
who imported Christian books printed in China was persecuted as well as the one who helped
to import or smuggle into Japan by Chinese merchants. Even almanacs that only mentioned
Christianity were strictly prohibited (Francis and Nakajima, 13). As we can see, there was the
strict
Christianity related publication
censorship at this time of period.
Soon after that, Japanese authority started to censor not only Christian related books but also
other books (Mitchell, 3). For example, during sometime in 1661 to 1673, Edo’s North City
Commissioner banned amorous books with erotic contents. At the same time of period, all
publishers were ordered to have a permission from the Japanese authority before publishing
anything about Tokugawa family or unusual subject which could disturb other people (Mitchell
, 4). In November 1722, the Japanese authority issued the five articles publication edicts
refereed to by book dealers as
the articles:
“
1, new books which contained depraved or divergent
opinions on the
subjects of Confucianism, Buddhism,
Shintonism, medicine or poetry were prohibited; 2,
amorous books were not
to be printed; 3 it was
prohibited to publish matter about anyone’s family
background or ancestors;4, all books were to list the
author’s and publisher’s names in the colophon; 5,
no one was to publish about Tokugawa Ieyasu or his
family” (Mitchell, 5).
books
were produced in certain ways depending on if it was a hard book or a
soft
book. Hard books were books on
Shintonism, Buddhism, Confucianism,
medicine
astronomy, poetry and stories. In the case of a regular hard book,
“the
book dealer presented the manuscript and an
application to
publish to an association representative
who checked for any violations
of publishing
regulations or
piracy. After approval the applications
went to the proper city headman, where publication permission was given.
Next the publisher entered
is deal mark in the association’s “ New Publication Application seal Record
Book”
which kept truck of
publication rights. If the headman was uncertain
about a manuscript he tool it to the proper city elder
who might forwarded it
to the city commissioner.
Form there, it might be sent to the Confucius shrine”
(Mitchell, 5).
Soft
books were books for comedy and
picture book and they were
considered
as
an inferior trivial writing. Therefore, although
its process was similar to
the
one for a hard book, the process of a soft book
process was handled
differently.
It was the city commissioner who made the decision if it could be
a
publishable (Mitchell, 6). Their single judgment regarding the content
of
a book decided if it was appropriate to publish. If they did not give an
author
a permission, this book was never published.
In 1723, the first official prohibition of publication other than Christianity related materials was established by Ooka Tadasuke, the Edo, Tokyo, town magistrate. He issued two edicts; the Yomiri Kinrei (Prohibition of Broadsides) and the Shuppan Rei(Prohibition of Decree). Until the Meiji period (1868-1912). the latter became the model for the prohibition of the publication of all new interpretations of Confucianism, Buddhism, medicine, poetry, erotic books and books about Tokugawa family. Authors and publishers were also required to identify themselves in all publications (Koudansha, 252). During 1787-1793, the restrictions on political writing and obscenity were tightened. In 1790, a new edict regarding the publishing was issued. It became necessary to obtain the prepublication permission for books and novels. Other edicts are addressed as:
“There
have been books since times long past and
no
more are necessary, so there ought to be no more
new
books. If the necessity does arise, inquiries must
be
made at the City Commissioner’s office and his
instructions
followed. Booksellers are henceforward
to
take part in the investigations and to inform
the
City Commissioner’s office at once should any
books
be put on sale in contravention of the law.
It
is to be regarded as the fault both of the person
responsible
and of the guild if anything is overlooked
or
not investigated” (Rubin, 18).
Authors and publishers who against these regulations were punished. In the case of one of
examples of the punishment, the book was banned, the writer was placed in manacles for fifty
days, his publisher was heavily fined, the writer’s father was reprimanded an the guild
representative who had given their approval were banished from Edo. Tokyo (Rubin, 19). As I
demonstrated above, there was the strict restriction for authors and publishers regarding the
publishing books. We can see how much they had to be carefully of the content of book when
they were going to publish a
book.
Authors
were also held responsible for the actions of their readers. In 1686, a
professional storyteller in theaters, Shikano Buzaemon published a collection of
stories and 7 years later, the rumor spread telling that a talking horse had
predicted a terrible epidemic in Edo, and this illness could be prevented by
eating pickled plums. Surprisingly, Japanese authority investigated the reason
people were rushing on the plum market and the increase of its price. They found
a source of this rumor and the person who got the idea from one of Shikano’s
stories. To take a responsibility of this reader’s action, Shikano was
banished from Edo (Mitchell, 10). Another professional storyteller, Baba Bunko
was executed on December 25 in 1758 because Baba discussed Tokugawa family
criticizing their officials in one of his books (Mitchell, 11). Therefore,
authors had to be careful with what they publish with consideration of readers
of actions and influences. Although there were many edicts suppressing the
freedom of expression and publication, many books were imported and published in
Japan. With the introduction of new printing technology that came with the
introduction of Christianity, books became increasingly accessible.
Throughout
Japanese history, there was strong relationship between publishing and Japanese
authority. The books were used as a
recorder of Japanese authority, officials, religious teaching material, poem,
story and so on.
The history of publishing in Japan, Hyaku-man tou darani, Million Tower
Dharani is considered as the oldest printed document that is printed in Nara
period (710-794). Dharani was a Sanskrit expression that was chanted in esoteric
Buddhism without being translated. In
Heian period (794-1192), Woodblock printing was commonly used, but it was mainly
for the Buddhist scriptures. Then, from Kamakura period (1192-1333) to Muromachi
period (1336-1573), other than Buddhist scriptures such as literatures and
novels started to be printed (Elison,19). Printed
materials were however, mostly available and affordable for a certain social
status people, such as officials, doctors and Buddhist persists.
With Avalignono, Jesuit priest’s arrival, the movable printing technology was introduced to
Japan and commonly used in Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600). The movable printing
using metal movable type helped the distribution of religious and linguistic books. From
Valigano’s writing, we can see the reason he brought back movable printing technology and the
origin of the Jesuit mission
press in Japan:
“As regards your Lordship’s opinion
that heretical books
should
not be introduced into Japan, nor those
which
contain
heathen mythology, this is so fit
and proper
that
it would be a great mistake to do
otherwise, this
why
not only have we forbidden such
things, but
further
ordained that the youths in all the
seminaries
should
only study from very holy and
Catholic works,
wherece
they will learn Latin in such a way
as
to
imbibe simultaneously Christian
precepts and
virtue
and to abhor vices. Even as regards the
philosophy and theology which we are to
teach them,
we must omit all mention of
differences of opinion,
erroneous viewpoints, and
controversial topics, for
a long time at least,
and we must confine ourselves
to teaching them only
tried and tested true Catholic
doctrine. Not even our holy books
should be
introduced
indiscriminately into Japan,
especially
those which confute heresies and
other abuses
which are sometimes prevalent in
European
Christendom. For this reason I have
ordered a
printing
press which I am taking with me to
Japan,
so
that we can print there such books as
are fit
for
circulation in Japan after having been previously
censored and purified”(Boxer,190).
To
react this principle, one press, a font of movable Latin type was used, and
soon, the press was expanded including works in Kana characters(Boxer,191). From
the late 16th century to the 17th century, using same method, Kirishitan-ban,
Christian books were printed. Those books were written in both
Roman script and Japanese script. However, these Christian publications
disappeared because of the Christianity publication censorship. (Elison,20).
There are museums in Japan where we can go to see the Kirishitan-ban and
learn how it was produced.
In 1868, the restoration of the Emperor occurred and that was the end of
Edo period as well as the end of ruler of Tokugwa family, which lasted about 268
years. With this change, new Japanese government opened Japan to other countries
and abolished old rules. In 1873 on February 19 was the turning point in Japan
regarding the history of Christianity. Japanese government changed the attitude
towards Christianity suddenly and issued for
the removal of the edicts against Christianity. People saw it as the sign of
beginning of freedom. Soon after that, few
newspaper started to be published. For one of newspaper’s article, a pastor,
Paul Sawayama wrote an article criticizing
Shintonism, Buddhism, and Confucianism urged the introduction of Christianity.
After this publication of this article, a pastor, Paul was sent to the prison
and died. Although in 1873, Japanese government made a law to allow people to
posses the Bible, and publish Christianity related documents, people were still
arrested. In this sense, it took a long time to be recognized this new law (
Murai,132). These similar incidents happen in various places and
illustrated that changes takes time to be taken place and accepted in
society.
By
censoring what people can believe and read suppressing the concept of freedom of
expiations, Japanese authorities tried to maintain their social and political
order, and eliminated criticisms. The publication censorship lasted until
Tokugawa political system collapsed in 1868. Although Edo period was ended then,
the publication censorship continuously existed as a form of the modern
censorship system in Meiji period.
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Masahiko. Nihon no dentou to syuukyou. Tokyo: Perikan sha, 1999.
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R.C. The Christian Century in Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1967.
Cary,
Otis. A History of Christianity in Japan: Roman Catholic. New York: Greek
Orthodox Missions, 1970.
Donohue, John W. Martyrdom of Japanese Catholics in 1596, America. 176
(Feb. 1 1997) p. 302-305.
Francis,
Bowen. Carolyn; Nakajima, Masaaki. John. Christians in Japan. New York:
Friendship Press,1991.
Kodansha
encyclopedia of Japan.
Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983.
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Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1984.
Sukeno,
Kentaro. Shimabara no ran. Tokyo: Tousyutupan, 1967.
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R. Notto. Buddhism and Christianity in Japan. Honolulu: University of
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Stephen. The Kakure Kirishitan of Japan: A study of their development,
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